Being smart is good. This is something that everyone knows, since having a high level of intelligence helps us to deal effectively with different events in life.
However… What exactly does it mean to be intelligent? What do we mean by intelligence? When answering these questions, doubt appears, and the answer is not something simple or insubstantial.
In fact, the study of intelligence is a complex phenomenon that has been explored extensively and frequently in psychology, with a large number of ways to understand what and how intelligence is and having proposed numerous theories of human intelligence throughout history
In a generic way and without going into detail about what is part of it, we can consider intelligence as the capacity or set of mainly cognitive capacities that allow us to adapt to the environment, solve the problems that it poses to us and even anticipate them successfully. . However, the Different authors who have treated and studied intelligence have found different definitions of this concept some contradicting each other while others are complementary.
When carrying out these studies, different approaches have been used, some having a more experimental, genetic or functional approach. One of the approaches has focused on determining the components of intelligence in order to understand it, this being the approach of the factorial theories on which this article is based.
Two large groups of theories
Although, as we have said, there are different ways of classifying the enormous variety of theories regarding what we consider intelligence one of those that is clearest is the one that is most divisive between the different conceptualizations: whether intelligence is one or, on the contrary, there are several types of intelligence.
A unitary intelligence
The first studies regarding intelligence and intellectual capacity worked under the assumption that intelligence is a single general, unmodifiable and genetically determined capacity. Through these theories, they have been developed psychometric tests that assess intelligence based on its reflection in standardized tests, measuring the intellectual quotient or IQ through them. According to these theories, then, intelligence was unifactorial
Capability Set
There are other theories that stipulate that intelligence It is not a single ability, but rather a set of skills and abilities independent of each other. This explains why there are geniuses in some aspects such as music and art who have limited logical capacity, or intellectual eminences who are incapable of projecting such knowledge or understanding the reactions of others. These types of theories, multifactorial, are used to create specific intelligence tests depending on which abilities are most interesting to measure However, it must be taken into account that currently the scientific context is that intelligence in the singular is an entity in itself, although with “branches”.
Whether considered a single or multiple capacity, the truth is that research in this regard has been extensive and has allowed the construction of various theories. Some of the most considered throughout history are the following.
1. First approximations: Binet
The name of Alfred Binet is especially known for having been the creator of the first intelligence measurement scale This author, who considered intelligence to be a single capacity, was one of the first to explore the concept of mental age as the age at which the majority of subjects are capable of carrying out or solving a given problem. He believed that skills and abilities could be improved through education and training.
The concept of mental age would be used by this author as a measure of intelligence. After him, William Stern would link this mental age to chronological age in order to be able to comparatively evaluate the level of intellectual development and finally with all this Terman would end up creating the concept of Intellectual Quotient or IQ.
2. Spearman’s two-factor theory
One of the first theories of intelligence, Spearman proposes in his two-factor theory of intelligence that there is a general intellectual capacity o G Factor, which is common to all the activities we carry out.
However, depending on the type of activity we do, we will have to apply specific skills to bring it to a successful conclusion, specific capabilities that are called Factor s. While the g factor is hereditary and unmodifiable, specific skills could be improved through learning and education.
3. Cattell’s theory of intelligence
One of the best-known theories of intelligence is that of Raymond Cattell In his theory, this author interprets, partly based on the two-factor theory, that intellectual capacity is configured by two types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized. While fluid intelligence corresponds to reasoning and the general capacity to adapt in novel situations, without learning influencing the performance carried out, Crystallized intelligence refers to the ability to apply learned knowledge throughout life.
On the other hand, Cattell did not believe that the g factor was a reflection of a natural process that actually occurs in the human brain, but rather that it would simply be a statistical product caused by the fact that when measuring it is not possible to isolate the really existing processes well. .
It also explores its development throughout life, stating that crystallized intelligence varies throughout life, increasing with the accumulation of experience, while fluid intelligence would remain fixed after brain maturation during adolescence.
4. Vernon hierarchical model
A type of theory that has also worked in the field of intelligence is that of hierarchical models, whose main representative is Philip Edward Vernon These models are based on the idea that specific factors (those specific to the specific activities that we carry out) are the bases of superior capabilities, which form hierarchies until reaching general capacity or intelligence. The last two divisions before reaching the g factor would be the verbal-educational and spatial-motor factors, which the author links to a specific hemisphere.
In addition to this, Vernon’s model proposes that intelligence can be understood in three parts: A, B and C. Intelligence A understands intelligence as the possibility to learn and adapt, intelligence B corresponds to the level of ability demonstrated in the behavior and intelligence C refers to the score obtained in intelligence tests.
5. Thurstone’s theory of primary aptitudes
As we have previously indicated, not all authors agreed that intelligence was a unique capacity, with some authors considering mental capacity to be a composite and multifactorial element. Louis Leon Thurstone did not believe in the existence of a general factor of intelligence, but rather different independent factors in their operation but linked together they allow guiding behavior in order to be able to face the demands of the environment.
For this reason, he developed the theory of primary mental abilities, one of the first multifactorial theories of intelligence, in which, through factor analysis, he found various abilities that allow correct adaptation to the environment. Specifically, Thurstone refers to the abilities of verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, memory, spatial ability, numerical ability, agility/perceptual speed and logical reasoning.
6. Guilford’s theory of the structure of intellect
Another author who opposed the idea of ​​a single intelligence was Joy Paul Guilford. This author presents a theory of intelligence based on a three-dimensional model in which intellectual operations, contents and products of the intellect are taken into account when evaluating any intellectual factor from a perspective similar to the cognitivist one.
The contents of the intellect would refer to the type of information with which the intellect operates from stimuli, which may be figurative, symbolic, semantic or behavioral content.
Mental operations are understood as the processes from which information is processed, these operations being cognition, memory, evaluation and convergent and divergent production. Finally, mental operations reflect a series of results, which can occur in the form of units of information, classes or concepts, relationships, systems, transformations of information and a work of association or implication between stimuli and information.
In addition to this operational consideration of mental processes, the author links intelligence to the ability to generate new strategies and solutions to problems posed beyond the typical ones, no matter how useful they may have been. Thus, intelligence It is also related to creativity and divergent thinking
7. Sternberg’s triarchic theory
We cannot help but see that the theories presented focus largely on how intelligence is structured as something internal, without taking into account where it is applied. Robert J. Sternberg also took this fact into account, developing his triarchic theory From which it is considered that there are three types of intelligence.
The first of them is analytical intelligence, which corresponds to the traditional idea of ​​intelligence as the ability to acquire, encode and store information, being able to carry out a theoretical analysis of the situation.
The second of Sternberg’s intelligences is practical intelligence, which refers to the ability to contextualize, that is, the ability to select the most adaptive and appropriate behavior or strategy based on the needs and resources derived from the environment. Theoretically, it would be very similar to the crystallized intelligence proposed by Cattell and other authors based on it.
Finally, for Sternberg, there is one more intelligence, creative intelligence treated in its experiential subtheory through which we have the ability to face new situations by working and developing strategies based on the information acquired throughout life.
8. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner has been a critical figure with the idea of ​​the presence of a single intelligence and the fact that it can be measured by IQ. In fact, it must be taken into account that classic intelligence tests essentially measure logical and verbal abilities, not observing the importance of other abilities when it comes to adapting to the environment.
This author considers that it is not possible to speak of a single ability that can be classified as intelligence. He considers that intellectual capacity and performance are due to a conglomerate of mental abilities common to everyone to a greater or lesser extent, establishing various types of intelligence to be applied in different contexts. These “intelligence” that would be hidden behind what we normally consider intelligence would actually be parallel mental processes, unrelated beyond the ability to lead to useful behaviors depending on the new challenges we face.
Specifically, although he is open to the possibility that there are more, Gardner highlights new; logical-mathematical, linguistic, kinetic-bodily, intrapersonal, interpersonal, spatial, musical, naturalistic intelligence.
However, in recent years Howard Gardner has pointed out that this classification would only be one proposal, and that others may be equally valid. On the other hand, this theory is not the most accepted by the scientific community, which continues to consider that intelligence can be considered a psychological construct without radical subdivisions that dilute its existence.
Other theories
There are many other theoretical proposals of intelligence. For example, emotional intelligence raised by Daniel Goleman It is a concept increasingly used among the general population.
This theory considers that the ability to identify, manage, modify and manipulate one’s own and others’ emotions is a form of intelligence to take into account. Currently we are also talking about social intelligence, although it could be included within interpersonal intelligence.
