DNA Nucleotides: What They Are, Characteristics And Functions
The human genome project, promoted in 1990 with a budget of 3 billion dollars, set the global goal of mapping the chemical bases that produce our DNA and identifying all the genes present in the genome of the human species. Sequencing was completed in 2003, 13 years later.
Thanks to this titanic molecular and genetic work, we now know that the human genome contains approximately 3,000 million base pairs and about 20,000-25,000 genes. Even so, there remains a lot to describe, since the functions of each and every section of genetic information that we have encoded in each of our cells is not known.
While scientists investigate, the general population becomes increasingly aware of what genetics is, the science that studies that alphabet of molecules that organize and encode heredity and each of our vital functions. We are nothing without our genes and, although they are not visible to the naked eye, all living material “is” thanks to them. Since we cannot acquire knowledge without starting from the beginning, in this article we introduce you to the basal structure that encodes our existence: DNA nucleotides
A nucleotide is defined as an organic molecule formed by the covalent union of a nucleoside (pentose + nitrogenous base) and a phosphate group
A sequence of nucleotides is its own genetic word, since its order encodes the synthesis of proteins by the cellular machinery and, therefore, the metabolism of the living being. But let’s not get ahead of ourselves: let’s focus first on each of the parts that give rise to this unique molecule.
1. Pentose
Pentoses are monosaccharides, simple carbohydrates (sugars), formed by a chain of 5 carbon atoms united that fulfill a clear structural function. Pentose can be a ribose, giving rise to a ribonucleoside, the basic structure of RNA. On the other hand, if ribose loses an oxygen atom, deoxyribose arises, the pentose that is part of the deoxyribonucleoside, the main structure of DNA.
2. Nitrogen base
As we have said before, pentose and a nitrogenous base give rise to a ribonucleoside or deoxyribonucleoside, but what is a base? Nitrogen bases are cyclic organic compounds that include two or more nitrogen atoms. in them the key to the genetic code is found, since they give a specific name to each of the nucleotides of which they are part There are 3 types of these heterocyclic compounds:
Purine nitrogenous bases: adenine (A) and guanine (G). Both are part of both DNA and RNA. Pyrimidine nitrogenous bases: cytosine (C), thymine (T) and uracil (U). Thymine is unique to DNA, while uracil is unique to RNA.
Isoaloxacinic nitrogenous bases: flavin (F). It is not part of either DNA or RNA, but it carries out other processes.
Thus, if a nucleotide contains a thymine base, it is directly called (T). Nitrogenous bases are what give name to those sequences that we have all seen on a blackboard or informative scientific material at some point in our lives. For example, GATTACA is an example of a DNA sequence of 7 nucleotides, each with a base that gives it its name
3. Phosphate group
We already have the complete nucleoside, since we have described pentose, which is linked by a glycosidic bond to one of the bases A, G, C and T. Now we only need one compound to have the nucleotide in its entirety: Phosphate group.
A phosphate group is a polyatomic ion composed of a central phosphorus (P) atom surrounded by four identical oxygen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement This combination of atoms is essential for life, as it is part of the nucleotides of DNA and RNA, but also those that transport chemical energy (ATP).
Nucleotide: Nucleoside (base + pentose) + phosphate group
Deciphering life through DNA nucleotides
All this chemical information is very good, but how do we put it into practice? Well, first of all, we must take into account that Every three coding nucleotides form a different phrase to provide information about each of the assemblies that give rise to a protein Let’s take an example:
These three nucleotide sequences encoded in the cell’s DNA core contain the instructions for assembling the amino acid isoleucine, which is one of 20 amino acids used for the synthesis of functional proteins. We clarify the following: it is not that the three sequences are necessary to assemble isoleucine, but that the three are interchangeable because they all code for this amino acid (redundancy).
Through a process that does not concern us too much here, The cellular machinery carries out a procedure called transcription, by which these triplets of DNA nucleotides are translated into RNA Since the nitrogenous base thymine is not part of RNA, each (T) would have to be replaced by a (U). Thus, these nucleotide triplets would look like this:
If the cell requires isoleucine, an RNA transcribed with any of these three triplets (now called codons) will travel from the cell nucleus to the ribosomes in the cell cytosol, where it will be instructed to integrate the amino acid isoleucine into the cell. protein that is being built at that moment.
Through this nucleotide language based on nitrogenous bases, a total of 64 codons can be created , which code for the 20 amino acids necessary to build any protein in living beings. It should be noted that, except in rare cases, each amino acid can be encoded by 2,3,4 or 6 different codons. In the case that we have seen before of isoleucine, for example, three possible nucleotide combinations are valid.
Proteins are generally made up of between 100 and 300 amino acids Thus, a protein composed of 100 of them, doing calculations, will be coded by 300 codons (each triplet of bases responds to an amino acid, remember), which will be the product of the translation of 300 DNA nucleotides present in the cell’s genome. .
A summary explanation
We understand that this whole explanation out of the blue may be somewhat dizzying, but we assure you that with the similes that we present below, the function of DNA nucleotides will be clearer than water.
We must see the DNA inside the nucleus of the cell as a huge library full of books Each of the books is a gene, which contains (in the case of humans) about 150 letters, which are nucleotides arranged with a specific purpose. Thus, each three of these nucleotide letters form a small phrase.
A tireless librarian, in this case the enzyme RNA polymerase of the cell is seeking to transform the words of one of the books into tangible material Well, this one will be in charge of looking for the specific book, the specific phrase and, since the words cannot be torn from the pages (DNA cannot move from the nucleus), it will copy the relevant information in its own form into its own notebook.
The “copied phrases” are nothing more than DNA nucleotides converted into RNA nucleotides, that is, codons. Once this information has been transcribed (transcription), a machine is ready to assemble the information contained in each of the words in a consistent way. These are ribosomes, places where proteins are synthesized from a sequence of amino acids in a specific order. Simpler that way, right?
Summary
As you may have seen, explaining the intricate processes encoded by DNA is almost as complex as understanding them. Even so, if we want you to leave with a concrete idea of this whole terminological conglomerate, this is the following: The order of the nucleotides present in the DNA of living beings encodes the correct synthesis of proteins which translates into various metabolic processes and in each of the parts of our body that define us, since these represent 50% of the dry weight of almost any tissue.
Thus, the expression of DNA (genotype) through cellular mechanisms gives rise to our external traits (phenotype), the characteristics that make us who we are, both at the individual and species level. Sometimes, the explanation of enormous phenomena lies in the understanding of much smaller things.
