The 3 Stages Of Ancient Rome: Its History And Characteristics
We all know Ancient Rome, but… do we know what stages its history is divided into and what characteristics each of them had? Rome was not always an empire, nor was it founded as a republic.
Historians clearly distinguish 3 stages in the history of Rome: monarchy, republic and empire In addition to delving into what each of them consisted of, in this article we will also focus on the last years of the Roman Empire, when the Germanic hordes penetrated its borders and shook a reality that had lasted for centuries.
Let’s see, then, what are the stages of Ancient Rome and its main characteristics.
1. First stage: the monarchy
We do not know for sure what happened during the first years of Rome’s existence. In fact, we don’t even know anything about its founding, or who was involved in it. Well, to tell the truth, we do have information, but it is merely legendary.
Roman mythology attributes the founding of the city to Romulus, the legendary first king of Rome Both he and his twin brother Remus descended from Ascanius, who was, in turn, the son of Aeneas, the escaped Trojan. Let’s pause a little on this legend to learn how the ancient Romans described the origins of their city.
The origin that sinks into legend
Roman mythology tells that Aeneas fled from the burning of Troy and took refuge in Latium, Italy. There, he stands as king of the people of the Latins, the inhabitants of the area. Upon his death, he was succeeded by his son Ascanius, who founded the city of Alba Longa, the direct ancestor of Rome.
With this legend, the Romans claimed a mythical ancestry: they were the children of no less than a Trojan, so they linked their culture with the much admired Greek culture. Not only that, but Aeneas being the son of the goddess Aphrodite, The Romans traced their origins to the gods themselves A whole stratagem that authors such as Titus Livy and Virgil put in writing already in the time of Octavian Augustus, and which formed part of the new emperor’s propaganda mechanism.
But back to the legend. As we have already mentioned, Romulus founded the city of Rome once his brother died (in fact, he called it Rome in his honor). Romulus thus stands as the supposed first king of the city, although there is no historical evidence to testify to this.
The first kings of Rome
What is true in the legend? Remains of an Iron Age village have been found on the Palatine Hill (approximately, from the middle of the 8th century BC), so the archaeological evidence supports, more or less, the theory of the founding of a new city in the same years that the legend places that of Rome. We do not know if Romulus really existed; We have not received any records showing his presence in the village.
There also seems to be no solid evidence for the existence of the second king, Numa Pompilio, whose life is also mixed with legend In theory, this monarch was elected king by the Roman Senate after the death of Romulus. It is known that, during the Roman monarchy, the kings were elected by the Senate (their position was not hereditary); Generally, the candidates belonged to the main families of Roman society (which, later, gave rise to the patrician families of Rome, such as the Julii or the Cornelians).
The two kings who followed Numa Pompilius, Tullius Hostilius and Ancus Marcius, also lack solid records to support their existence. We only have the testimony of authors such as Titus Livy and Dionysus of Halicarnassus, who historians question due to the large number of legendary elements that their stories present. Be that as it may, Tullius Hostilius is credited with the conquest of Alba Longa, the ancient city founded by the son of Aeneas. Since then, the preeminence of Rome in Latium will be indisputable
Of the last kings, Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius and Tarquinius the Proud, we do have more or less reliable historical records. The last king of the Romans, Tarquin the Proud, achieved the absolute hegemony of Rome in Latium thanks to his conquests, through which he subjugated the rest of the peoples. He was a despotic and cruel king; In 509 BC, Tarquin was overthrown, according to legend, because of outrage over the rape his son had inflicted on Lucretia, a Roman patrician. An era was ending; The Roman Republic was born.
2. Second stage: The Roman Republic
After the overthrow of Tarquin the Proud and the expulsion of the Tarquins from Rome, Two consuls were elected (449 BC) who took over the government of the city Thus began a new period in the history of Rome: the res publicaor republic.
The res publica or public thing. A government for all?
Res publica It is a Latin word that can be translated as public affairs, or public affairs (of beefthing, and publish, of all). In Roman law, it is opposed to res privata, that is, to the thing that concerns someone in particular. In a few words, and roughly speaking, it can be said that, with the advent of the Roman Republic, the concept of the state was inaugurated as an element that concerned all citizens.
Well, not all of them. Because Not all inhabitants of Rome and its territories had civil and political rights Needless to say, slaves had nothing of the sort (in fact, they were not even considered human beings), but free commoners had no rights either. The only ones who had access to the government and privileges were the patricians, descendants of the first founders of Rome and who held, as a reminder of caste, their surnames or family.
The positions of the Roman Republic: the magistracies
The Roman Republic had been created to, in part, avoid the mistakes made during the time of the monarchy. For this, two consuls were appointed, as we have already said, who possessed the powers that had once belonged to the monarch (the empire and the auspicium). The first power referred to the military and judicial powers, while the second had a religious character and was related to the figure of the leader as a mediator before the gods. The powers of the consuls lasted one year.
As time went by, new magistracies were added: the praetor, the censor, the aediles, the quaestors… A curious figure was also added, the dictator or dictator, whose function was quite different from the concept we have today. He dictator It was only erected in case of major setbacks or political chaos, and all powers were assigned to him. But, to avoid abuses of power, his position was limited to six months, during which he had to solve the problems that afflicted the state.
It was during the Republic when Rome began to consolidate itself as a new military power in the Mediterranean In the 4th century BC, expansion through Italy had already begun, and, during the 2nd century BC, the Romans conquered the entire Iberian Peninsula. Meanwhile, they had engaged in a heated struggle against Carthage for Mediterranean hegemony: they were the so-called Punic Wars, which lasted for more than a century. The defeat of Carthage in 146 BC marked the turning point. Rome became the owner and mistress of the entire Mediterranean.
The difficult years: the civil wars of the 1st century BC
After a period of republican splendor, political and social instability looms over Rome. The crisis culminates in the so-called civil wars, which plagued the Republic during the last century BC. In this period, one figure stands out above the others: that of Julius Caesar
Caesar belonged to the popular political faction that, roughly speaking, was inclined to provide certain improvements to the lower classes of Rome; among them, the modification of the grain distribution system. All this, together with his extraordinary oratory ability, earned him the sympathy of the plebeian mass. On the opposite side, and declared enemies of the popular ones, were the optimates, who supported the Roman patricians and were clearly opposed to the political and social rise of the plebeians born in the conquered parts. The consequence of this bitter enmity was the confrontation between Julius Caesar and Pompey, a member of the party of the optimates, within the complex context of the Roman civil wars. After the defeat and death of Pompey, Julius Caesar emerges as absolute lord of Rome.
With Caesar, the Romans witness a gradual restoration of royal power, against which they had fought so hard. Appointed dictator for life and maximum pontiff, Julius Caesar represented a danger to the Roman Republic Thus, on the famous Ides of March in 44 BC, the dictator was assassinated.
However, the Republic was already mortally wounded. With the assassination of Caesar, another period of instability and war begins, which culminates with the appointment of his adopted son, Octavius ​​Augustus, as the first emperor of Rome.
3. Third stage: the Empire
Octavian did not immediately absorb imperial powers First, the Principality is established, during which the institutions of the Republic remain in force. But little by little, the young man acquires more and more power, until, in the year 27 BC, he is proclaimed Augustus, the name by which he will be known. The third and last period in the history of Rome began, and also the longest.
The High Empire (27 BC – 3rd century AD)
The Roman Empire extends no less than 500 years in history, from 27 BC, the year of the proclamation of Augustus, until 476 AD, when the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed. Five centuries in which dynasties, conflicts, times of peace and dark periods take place
Historians distinguish two stages in the Roman Empire: the High Empire and the Low Empire. The High Empire began, as we have already mentioned, with the proclamation of Octavian Augustus, and ends with the last emperor of the Severan dynasty, Severus Alexander Emperors of the stature of Trajan, who led the Empire to its maximum expansion, and Hadrian, who completed the task of his predecessor with the stabilization of the borders, stand out during this stage.
During the High Empire we also had cultured emperors, such as Marcus Aurelius, of the Antonine dynasty, author of the famous Meditationsa compendium of Stoic philosophy aimed at leading an orderly, judicious and fulfilling life.
Unfortunately, there are also disastrous emperors. This is the case of Caligula and Nero, from the Julio-Claudian dynasty (the first in the Empire, to which Augustus also belonged), or, a little later, Commodus, the son of Marcus Aurelius. It is necessary to clarify that, although historians agree on their inability to hold the reins of government, it is actually difficult to distinguish truth from legend in the lives of these emperors.
The High Empire ends with military anarchy a period of political instability that ends with the rise to power of Emperor Diocletian.
The Lower Empire and the two Romes
With Diocletian a new period opens in the history of Rome, because it was this emperor who established the tetrarchy. This system of government divided the power of the Empire between four people, two augusts and two caesars, spread across several provinces in order to better control the borders of the Empire. Furthermore, under the reign of Diocletian, a frenetic persecution was declared against Christians, who were already beginning to be numerous.
Constantine, son of Caesar Constantius Chlorus, proclaimed himself sole ruler of the entire Empire, thus bringing the tetrarchy to an end. Constantine’s reign is important, among other things, because the decree of tolerance of cults issued in Milan in 313, by which Christianity stopped being persecuted. However, it would not be until Theodosius (380) that Christianity would be proclaimed the official religion of the Empire.
Constantine is also famous for the establishment of the new capital in Byzantium, a former Greek colony located in present-day Turkey, which was later named Constantinople in honor of Constantine. This New Rome, as it was called at its founding, has great importance in history, since it would be the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire, in force until the conquest of the Turks in 1453.
This separation between western and eastern Rome occurred with Theodosius who, upon his death (395), divided the Empire between his two sons: for Arcadius it was the eastern part, while Honorius kept the west The Roman Empire would never be united again.
The end of the Western Empire
We cannot finish this journey through the stages of Ancient Rome without briefly commenting on what the end of the Western Empire was like. During the 5th century, Germanic tribes began to penetrate the borders of the Empire, which was already very weakened Rome could not face the advance of these peoples who were slowly establishing themselves in Roman territory, whether in a more or less peaceful way (as in the case of the Goths, to whom the Romans gave land in exchange for military aid). or violent (the vandals, who crossed the Iberian Peninsula with blood and fire and settled in North Africa).
Traditional historiography gives the end date as 476 AD, with the deposition of the last emperor, the boy Romulus Augustulus, at the hands of the Heruli. Ironies of life, the last Western Roman ruler shared a name with the mythical founder of Rome.
