Labeling theory is a sociological and psychological concept that explains how individuals come to identify and behave in ways that reflect the labels assigned to them by society. This theory is particularly influential in criminology, psychology, and social deviance studies, as it suggests that being labeled as “deviant” can lead a person to engage in further deviant behavior. Understanding labeling theory helps explain how social expectations shape identity, behavior, and even mental health.
Labeling theory posits that people internalize the labels that society assigns to them, which then influences their self-perception and actions. If an individual is repeatedly told they are a certain way—whether positive or negative—they may begin to embody that label.
This theory is most commonly applied in the study of deviance, suggesting that individuals do not inherently become “criminals” or “delinquents” based on their actions alone, but rather due to the way society responds to and labels them.
For example, a teenager who commits a minor act of vandalism and is labeled a “delinquent” by teachers, parents, and law enforcement may start identifying with that label, leading to more serious criminal behavior.
Key Concepts of Labeling Theory
Primary and Secondary Deviance
Primary deviance refers to minor rule-breaking behavior that has not been publicly labeled or stigmatized.
Secondary deviance occurs when an individual internalizes the label of “deviant” and continues engaging in deviant behavior as a result.
Stigma and Stereotypes
Once someone is labeled negatively (e.g., “criminal,” “mentally ill”), they often face social stigma that reinforces the label.
This can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies where individuals conform to the expectations associated with the label.
Master Status
A master status is a dominant label that overshadows all other aspects of an individual’s identity.
For example, if someone is labeled an “ex-convict,” society may define them solely by that label, ignoring other qualities they possess.
The History of Labeling Theory
Labeling theory emerged in the mid-20th century as part of the broader interactionist perspective in sociology. It challenged traditional views of deviance and crime, emphasizing the role of societal reactions rather than inherent criminal tendencies.
Early Influences
Émile Durkheim (1897)
Though not directly a proponent of labeling theory, Durkheim’s work on deviance as a social construct laid the foundation for later theories.
He argued that deviance is not inherent in an act but rather depends on how society perceives it.
Charles Cooley (1902) – The Looking-Glass Self
Cooley introduced the concept that individuals form their self-identity based on how they believe others perceive them.
This idea influenced later studies on labeling and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Development of Labeling Theory
Frank Tannenbaum (1938) – The “Dramatization of Evil”
Tannenbaum argued that once a child is labeled as a troublemaker, they may begin to see themselves in that role and act accordingly.
He suggested that societal reactions to deviance reinforce criminal behavior rather than deter it.
Edwin Lemert (1951) – Primary and Secondary Deviance
Lemert distinguished between primary deviance (rule-breaking behavior that is not labeled) and secondary deviance (behavior that results from being labeled).
He proposed that individuals adapt to labels imposed upon them, leading to persistent deviant behavior.
Howard Becker (1963) – The Outsiders
Becker expanded on previous theories, stating that “deviance is not a quality of the act, but rather a consequence of the application of rules.”
His work emphasized that those in power define what is considered deviant, and societal reactions play a crucial role in shaping identities.
Modern Applications
Labeling theory remains influential in psychology, criminology, and social justice discussions. Today, researchers examine how labels affect mental health diagnoses, educational outcomes, and racial disparities in the criminal justice system.
Examples of Labeling Theory in Action
Labeling theory can be observed in various social contexts, from schools to workplaces and the justice system.
1. The Criminal Justice System
A person arrested for a minor drug offense may be labeled a “criminal,” which affects their ability to find employment or housing.
This societal rejection can lead to further criminal activity, reinforcing the cycle of deviance.
2. Mental Health
Someone diagnosed with a mental disorder may be stigmatized as “unstable” or “dangerous,” leading them to internalize this perception and withdraw from social interactions.
Studies show that individuals who are labeled as “mentally ill” often experience discrimination, even if their symptoms are manageable.
3. Education
A student who struggles academically may be labeled as “lazy” or “unintelligent” by teachers, affecting their motivation and self-esteem.
This labeling can lead to lower academic performance, fulfilling the negative expectations placed on them.
4. Workplace Discrimination
Employees who are perceived as “incompetent” due to a single mistake may struggle to change that perception, even if their future performance improves.
Labels such as “unreliable” or “difficult to work with” can limit career advancement.
5. Social Identity and Stereotyping
Racial, gender, and socioeconomic stereotypes function as large-scale labeling mechanisms, influencing how individuals are treated in society.
For example, certain ethnic groups may be unfairly labeled as “prone to crime,” leading to increased scrutiny and discrimination.
Criticisms of Labeling Theory
While labeling theory has been widely influential, it is not without criticism. Some of the main critiques include:
Overemphasis on Societal Reactions
Critics argue that the theory focuses too much on external labels and not enough on individual choices and personal responsibility.
Neglect of Primary Causes of Deviance
Labeling theory does not fully address why people engage in deviant behavior in the first place.
Some scholars believe biological and psychological factors also play a significant role.
Not Everyone Accepts Labels
While many individuals internalize labels, others actively reject them and work to change societal perceptions.
Limited Explanation for Certain Crimes
The theory is more applicable to social deviance than serious criminal behavior (e.g., violent crimes), where internal factors may play a greater role than societal labeling.
How labeling theory operates in psychology
According to the labeling theory, through the attribution of the criminal label to the author or alleged perpetrator of a crime, a process capable of transforming him into a chronic offender would be triggered. This process could be affected by both the consequences of mistrust, lack of self-esteem and stigmatization of the community, as well as the isolation and social exclusion that penitentiary institutions cause.
Therefore, labeling can have harmful consequences both in social representation and self-perception as well as in opportunities and frequentations. This process, especially in the case of weak subjects, can start an extensive criminal career which can cause the first crime to progress to even more serious forms of deviation, as well as hostility or a detachment from the social body.
For this reason, the criminal career has been analyzed by many scholars, such as sociologist Howard S. Becker in his work “The Outsiders.”
Victims of labeling theory
According to the labeling theory, people who have committed any of the following would be victims of this phenomenon. crimes that raise “social alarm” and who do not have material means or a consolidated reputation or status capable of counteracting the label of criminal. Likewise, the definition of the behaviors to be stigmatized (crimes, or even non-criminal acts such as drug use), would be influenced by the power to influence public opinion and the laws of the richest strata.
Consequently, the social reaction will not be activated in the same way for all types of crimes and will be more severe and detrimental to the community. delinquency and crimes associated with minorities, poor people, suspected repeat offenders or those that have a certain appearance.
On the contrary, the protagonists of other criminal behaviors, such as “white collar” crimes, would not suffer the same process of social condemnation thanks to the tolerance granted for crimes typical of a higher social class, normally with a better status and means to find strategies capable of giving them a face lift.
Types of deviation according to labeling theory
According to labeling theory, a behavior is defined as deviant when it is labeled as such by those who have sufficient power to support and reinforce this definition. Therefore, deviance is the result of how others interpret a behavior, so individuals labeled as deviant often internalize this judgment and it ends up becoming part of their identity.
Next, we show you the types of deviation according to labeling theory:
Stigma
Stigma is the feeling of shame associated with a behavior or a social status considered unacceptable or reprehensible by society.
Social stigma works when labeling, separation, and discrimination are related to inequality in social, economic, or political power.
Secondary deviation
It responds directly not so much to a deviated motivation of the subject, but to the attitudes of disapproval and isolation that society puts into action towards the individual who has transgressed the norms. The reiteration of deviant behaviors, therefore, would be a defense mechanism and adaptation to the social reaction received.
In this case, labeling functions as a self-fulfilling prophecy, as mentioned in Thomas’ theorem.
Labeling theory provides a compelling perspective on how society influences individual identity and behavior. It highlights the power of social perception, the effects of stigma, and the consequences of being labeled as “deviant.” While the theory has its limitations, it remains relevant in discussions on criminal justice reform, mental health advocacy, and social inequality. Understanding how labels shape lives can help create more supportive systems that empower individuals rather than reinforce negative stereotypes.
FAQs: Labeling Theory and Its Effects
What is labeling theory in psychology and sociology?
Labeling theory explains how societal reactions to behavior influence an individual’s self-identity and future actions. It suggests that labels can reinforce or create deviant behavior.
Who developed labeling theory?
Howard Becker is most closely associated with labeling theory, though earlier sociologists like Edwin Lemert and Frank Tannenbaum contributed key ideas.
How does labeling theory relate to crime?
Labeling theory suggests that being labeled as a “criminal” can increase the likelihood of continued criminal behavior due to stigma, social rejection, and limited opportunities.
Can labeling be positive?
Yes, positive labels (e.g., “gifted student,” “leader”) can boost confidence and encourage individuals to fulfill high expectations.
How can the negative effects of labeling be reduced?
Avoid stigmatizing language.
Focus on rehabilitation rather than punishment.
Provide opportunities for individuals to redefine their identities.
Encourage self-reflection and empowerment over imposed identities.
Bibliography
Croteau, D., Hoynes, W., Antonelli, F., Rossi, E. (2022). General Sociology. Theory, method, concepts. Milan: McGraw-Hill.
Manai, N. (2017). Siamo davvero classisti? The theory of etiquette by Howard Becker. Recovered from: https://www.frammentirivista.it/la-teoria-delletichettamento-becker/
Marcon, G. (et al.) (2017). Oltre l’indizio. Verso a psycho-criminological reading of the crime. Padua: Webster.
